1. Chapter at a Glance
What does it mean for a person, a state or a country to be "developed"? For a landless farm worker it may mean more days of work and better wages; for a girl in a village it may mean the freedom to study as far as her brother; for a city family it may mean clean air and safe streets. Development means different things to different people, and some goals even conflict. Yet countries must compare progress and plan for the future. This chapter asks how we can measure development fairly: by income, by health and education, by the availability of public facilities, and by whether progress can be sustained for future generations.
- Different people have different and sometimes conflicting development goals.
- Income and other goals: equal treatment, freedom, security, respect.
- National income, per capita income and how countries are compared.
- Why income alone is not enough — health, education and public facilities.
- Infant mortality rate, literacy rate, net attendance ratio and the Human Development Index.
- Sustainability of development — groundwater, oil and the environment.
2. What Development Promises — Different People, Different Goals
| Category of person | Possible development goals |
|---|---|
| Landless rural labourer | More days of work, better wages, a local school for children, no social discrimination |
| Prosperous farmer in Punjab-type region | Higher support prices, cheaper inputs, children settled abroad or in cities |
| Farmer depending only on rain | Irrigation, crop insurance, easy credit |
| Rural woman from a land-owning family | Equal say in decisions, safety, education, freedom to work |
| Urban unemployed youth | Good jobs, skill training, respect |
| Adivasi from a mining area | Protection of land and forest rights, fair compensation, livelihood |
Two important ideas follow. First, different persons can have different development goals. Second, what is development for one may be destruction for another: a large dam may bring irrigation and electricity to many, but may also submerge the land and villages of others. Industrialists may want more power plants, while people near them may suffer from pollution. Development goals therefore have to be negotiated fairly.
3. Income and Other Goals
People usually want more income, because income buys material goods. But they also want things money cannot easily buy: equal treatment, freedom, security, respect, a safe and pleasant working environment, and opportunities to learn. A job that pays a little less but offers security and time with family may be preferred to a high-paying job with no security. Similarly, if women get paid work outside the home, their dignity and say in the household increase. So development is a mix of material and non-material goals.
4. National Development and Per Capita Income
To compare countries, we usually begin with income. The national income is the total income of all the residents of a country. But countries have very different populations, so total income does not tell us what an average person earns. We therefore use per capita income (average income):
The World Bank, in its World Development Reports, classifies countries into high-income, middle-income (upper and lower) and low-income groups using per capita income (its measure is gross national income per person in US dollars). India is placed among the lower middle-income countries.
Two countries each have five citizens. Monthly incomes (illustrative, in ₹ thousands): Country A: 9, 10, 10, 11, 10. Country B: 2, 3, 3, 2, 40. Find average incomes. Where would you rather live?
Solution: Both averages = 50 ÷ 5 = 10. But in A incomes are equally spread, while in B four people are poor and one is very rich. Most people would prefer A. Averages are useful for comparison but hide the distribution of income.
5. Beyond Income: Health, Education and Public Facilities
Money in the pocket cannot buy everything. A family with a good income still cannot buy a pollution-free environment, protection from infectious diseases, or a good school if none exists nearby. Many such things are best provided collectively through public facilities — government hospitals, schools, clean drinking water, sanitation, public transport and the public distribution system (PDS) for food grains.
For this reason, two states with similar per capita income can have very different levels of well-being. Kerala, for instance, has for many years been noted for low infant mortality and high literacy because of strong investment in basic health and education, even though its per capita income was not the highest. Some states with higher incomes have done less well on these indicators.
- Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): the number of children who die before the age of one year, per 1000 live births in that year.
- Literacy Rate: the proportion of literate population in the 7 years and above age group.
- Net Attendance Ratio: the total number of children of age group 14–15 years attending school as a percentage of total children in that age group.
- Body Mass Index (BMI): weight (kg) ÷ height² (m²); used to check under-nutrition — a BMI below 18.5 indicates undernourishment in adults.
6. The Human Development Index
The Human Development Report, published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), compares countries using the Human Development Index (HDI), which combines three dimensions:
| Dimension | Indicator used |
|---|---|
| A long and healthy life | Life expectancy at birth |
| Knowledge | Mean years of schooling (adults) and expected years of schooling (children) |
| A decent standard of living | Gross national income per capita (adjusted for purchasing power) |
Life expectancy at birth is the average expected length of life of a person at the time of birth. HDI shows that some countries with modest incomes (for example, Sri Lanka, which has long had strong health and education outcomes) rank well on human development, while some richer countries rank lower than their income would suggest. India's neighbours offer interesting comparisons, which you will study in more detail in Class 11.
7. Sustainability of Development
Even if a country is developed today, can it remain so? Sustainable development means meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
- Groundwater: it is a renewable resource only if extraction does not exceed recharge by rain. In many parts of India, groundwater is being over-used, and water tables are falling; if this continues, these areas may face serious shortages.
- Non-renewable resources: crude oil, coal and minerals are fixed stocks that get exhausted with use. A country dependent on imported crude oil also faces risks when world oil prices rise.
- Environment: pollution and degradation cross state and national borders. Climate change shows that environmental problems are global, and solutions need cooperation.
Scientists, economists, philosophers and social scientists all work together on the question of sustainability. Development that destroys the environment is not real development.
8. Case Studies and Solved Problems
A dam will supply irrigation and electricity to cities and farms downstream, but will submerge 40 villages. Discuss.
Answer: Beneficiaries see development; displaced villagers lose land, homes and livelihoods. A fair approach requires proper rehabilitation, compensation, consultation, and comparing alternatives (smaller dams, watershed development). The case shows that development goals can conflict.
State X has higher per capita income than State Y, but State Y has lower IMR and higher literacy. Which is "more developed"?
Answer: By income alone, X. But by human development, Y may be ahead because of better health and education, often due to public facilities. A complete judgement uses several indicators, not one.
A student weighs 45 kg and is 1.6 m tall. Is the student undernourished (adult cut-off 18.5)?
Answer: BMI = 45 ÷ (1.6 × 1.6) = 45 ÷ 2.56 ≈ 17.6 — below 18.5, indicating under-nutrition by the adult standard (for children, age-specific charts are used).
9. Master Table: Key Terms and Formulas
| Term | Meaning / formula |
|---|---|
| National income | Total income of all residents of a country |
| Per capita income | National income ÷ population |
| Infant Mortality Rate | Deaths under 1 year per 1000 live births |
| Literacy rate | Literate population aged 7+ ÷ total population aged 7+ × 100 |
| Net Attendance Ratio | Children aged 14–15 in school ÷ all children aged 14–15 × 100 |
| BMI | Weight (kg) ÷ height² (m²) |
| HDI | Composite of life expectancy, education and per capita income |
| Sustainable development | Meeting present needs without harming future generations' ability to meet theirs |
10. Master Summary Table
| Measure | Strength | Limitation |
|---|---|---|
| Total national income | Size of the economy | Ignores population |
| Per capita income | Allows comparison of countries | Hides inequality; ignores non-material goals |
| IMR, literacy, attendance | Show real well-being | Each covers only one aspect |
| HDI | Combines income, health, education | Leaves out environment, freedom, equality |
| Sustainability | Looks to the future | Hard to measure precisely |
11. Mind Map
- Different, conflicting
- Material + non-material
- Per capita income
- World Bank groups
- IMR, literacy, NAR
- HDI, public facilities
- Groundwater, oil
- Future generations
12. Tips and Tricks
- For "conflicting goals" questions, always give one group that gains and one that loses.
- When asked why per capita income is not enough, mention: inequality, non-material goals, public facilities, environment.
- Remember HDI's three pillars as "Long life, Knowledge, Living standard".
- Defining IMR per 100 births — it is per 1000 live births.
- Writing that the World Bank publishes HDI — it is published by UNDP.
- Thinking groundwater is unlimited because it is renewable.
13. Important One-liners
- Different persons can have different and conflicting development goals.
- Per capita income = total income ÷ population.
- Averages are useful for comparison but hide disparities.
- Public facilities such as health care and schools are often best provided collectively.
- HDI is published by UNDP in the Human Development Report.
- Sustainable development protects the interests of future generations.
- India is classified as a lower middle-income country by the World Bank.
14. Exam-pattern Questions with Detailed Answers
The Human Development Report is published by:
- World Bank
- UNDP
- WTO
- IMF
Show answer
The United Nations Development Programme publishes the Human Development Report and HDI.
Answer: (B) UNDP
Define Infant Mortality Rate.
Show answer
The number of children who die before completing one year of age, per 1000 live births in a year.
Answer: Deaths under age 1 per 1000 live births
A country has national income of ₹50,000 crore and population of 5 crore. Find per capita income.
Show answer
50,000 crore ÷ 5 crore = ₹10,000.
Answer: ₹10,000
"Different persons can have different and conflicting development goals." Explain with an example.
Show answer
Industrialists may want more dams to get electricity, but tribal people living there may lose their homes and livelihoods. Similarly, a factory may bring jobs to some but pollution to people living nearby. So development for one group may mean loss for another.
Answer: Goals depend on people's situation and may conflict, e.g. dams and displacement
Why is per capita income not a complete indicator of development?
Show answer
It is an average and hides inequality; it ignores non-material goals like security, freedom and respect; it does not show access to public facilities such as health and education; and it says nothing about environmental sustainability.
Answer: Hides inequality and ignores non-income aspects of well-being
Why are public facilities important for development? Give two examples.
Show answer
Some goods are cheaper and more effective when provided collectively — no individual can buy a pollution-free environment or ensure a whole village is free from disease. Examples: government hospitals and schools; the public distribution system providing food grains at fair prices; clean drinking water supply.
Answer: They provide essential services all can use, irrespective of income
What is the Net Attendance Ratio? Why is it a useful indicator?
Show answer
It is the number of children aged 14–15 attending school as a percentage of all children of that age. It shows how many children actually continue schooling, not just enrolment, and reflects access to education.
Answer: % of 14–15-year-olds attending school; shows real educational access
What are the three components of the HDI?
Show answer
Health (life expectancy at birth), education (mean and expected years of schooling) and standard of living (gross national income per capita).
Answer: Life expectancy, education, per capita income
Explain why sustainability is important for development, with the example of groundwater.
Show answer
Groundwater is renewable only when the rate of use does not exceed recharge by rain. In many regions extraction for irrigation and cities exceeds recharge, lowering water tables. If this continues, future generations will face water shortages and farm output may fall. So development that ignores sustainability may reverse itself; resource use must be planned for the long term.
Answer: Over-use today threatens tomorrow's development
Two countries have the same average income. Why might one be preferred to the other? Illustrate with numbers.
Show answer
Illustrative: A has incomes 9, 10, 10, 11, 10; B has 2, 3, 3, 2, 40. Both average 10, but B is highly unequal: four citizens are poor. Most people would prefer A because income is more equally distributed and fewer people are deprived.
Answer: Equal distribution matters; averages hide inequality
"Money cannot buy all the goods and services needed to live well." Do you agree? Give three examples.
Show answer
Agree. Money cannot easily buy: a pollution-free environment; protection from infectious diseases unless the whole community is protected; a safe neighbourhood; unadulterated medicines; or good schools if none exist locally. These require collective action and public provision.
Answer: Agree — environment, public health, safety need collective action
Suggest a balanced set of indicators to judge a state's development, and justify.
Show answer
Per capita income (material standard), IMR and life expectancy (health), literacy and net attendance ratio (education), access to drinking water, sanitation and electricity (public facilities), inequality and women's participation (fairness), and groundwater or forest cover trends (sustainability). Together these give a fuller picture than income alone.
Answer: Combine income, health, education, facilities, equity and sustainability indicators
15. Quick Revision Summary
- Development goals differ across people and may conflict.
- Income matters, but so do freedom, security, equality and respect.
- Per capita income compares countries but hides inequality.
- IMR, literacy rate, net attendance ratio and HDI measure human well-being.
- Public facilities make a big difference to health and education.
- Sustainable development protects resources like groundwater and oil for future generations.