1. Chapter at a Glance
English carries 200 marks (50 questions) in NDA GAT, an entire 100-mark paper (120 questions) in CDS, and about 20–25 questions in AFCAT Verbal Ability. In CDS, English is also the gateway paper for OTA. The questions test grammar in context, vocabulary and reading speed rather than literature. The standard question types are: spotting errors, sentence improvement, fill in the blanks, synonyms and antonyms, ordering of words and sentences (para-jumbles), idioms and phrases, one-word substitution, cloze test and reading comprehension. This chapter gives the rules you need for each type, with examples written for this course.
- Grammar rules give the most reliable marks — 15–20 rules cover most error-spotting questions.
- Build vocabulary daily: 15 new words with usage, revised weekly. Read one editorial a day to improve comprehension speed.
- In comprehension, read the questions first, then the passage — answer only from what the passage says.
- In NDA and CDS, a wrong answer costs one-third of the marks. Attempt vocabulary questions only if you are fairly sure.
2. Parts of Speech — Essentials
| Part of speech | Function | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Noun | Names a person, place, thing or idea | The cadet showed courage. |
| Pronoun | Replaces a noun | She trained hard; the trophy is hers. |
| Adjective | Describes a noun | a brave soldier |
| Verb | Shows action or state | The pilot landed safely. |
| Adverb | Modifies a verb, adjective or adverb | He marched briskly. |
| Preposition | Shows relation of a noun to another word | The camp is beside the river. |
| Conjunction | Joins words or clauses | tired but determined |
| Interjection | Expresses sudden feeling | Bravo! Well done. |
3. Subject–Verb Agreement
- A singular subject takes a singular verb: "The leader of the soldiers is here" (the subject is "leader", not "soldiers").
- Either/neither, each, every, everyone, nobody, somebody take singular verbs: "Each of the officers has a rifle."
- With either…or / neither…nor / not only…but also, the verb agrees with the nearer subject: "Neither the captain nor the soldiers were late."
- As well as, along with, together with, with, besides do not change the number of the subject: "The colonel, along with his officers, was present."
- Collective nouns (team, army, jury) take a singular verb when acting as one unit and plural when members act individually: "The jury was unanimous" / "The jury were divided in their opinions."
- "The number of" + plural noun takes a singular verb; "A number of" takes a plural verb.
- Words like news, mathematics, physics, politics (as a subject) take singular verbs; scissors, trousers, spectacles, cattle, police take plural verbs.
- Amounts of money, time and distance treated as one unit take singular verbs: "Ten kilometres is a long march."
4. Tenses — Rules Tested Most
| Tense | Form | Use |
|---|---|---|
| Simple present | V1 / V1+s | Habits, facts: The sun rises in the east. |
| Present continuous | is/am/are + V-ing | Action now: The unit is moving north. |
| Present perfect | has/have + V3 | Past action with present effect; never with a definite past time (yesterday, in 2020). |
| Present perfect continuous | has/have been + V-ing | Action continuing from the past: He has been serving since 2019. |
| Simple past | V2 | Completed action at a definite time: He joined in 2018. |
| Past perfect | had + V3 | The earlier of two past actions: The train had left before we reached. |
| Simple future | will/shall + V1 | Future action |
- Use since with a point of time (since Monday) and for with a period (for three days).
- In conditional sentences: "If he works hard, he will pass" (type 1); "If he worked hard, he would pass" (type 2); "If he had worked hard, he would have passed" (type 3). Never use "will" in the if-clause.
- After "It is time", "It is high time" and "as if", use the past tense: "It is high time we left."
- "Hardly / scarcely … when" and "No sooner … than": "No sooner had the alarm sounded than the troops moved."
5. Articles, Prepositions and Pronouns
- Use a before a consonant sound and an before a vowel sound: a university, a one-day match, an hour, an MLA, an honest officer.
- Use the with unique things (the sun), superlatives (the bravest), rivers, oceans, mountain ranges, newspapers, holy books and musical instruments (the Ganga, the Himalayas, the Gita, plays the flute). No article before languages, names of meals, games, or most single mountains and lakes (Mount Everest).
- Prepositions often tested: superior to, senior to, prefer to, comply with, abstain from, accused of, charged with, die of (disease), die from (wound), divide between (two) / among (more than two), angry with (person) / at (thing), congratulate on, insist on, deprived of.
- Pronoun case: "between you and me" (object after a preposition); "It is I" (after be); "He is taller than I (am)".
- "One must do one's duty" (not his duty). "Each of the boys has done his work."
- Who is subject, whom is object: "The officer whom we met was kind."
6. Spotting Errors and Sentence Improvement — Common Rules
| Incorrect | Correct | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| He is one of those who has volunteered. | …who have volunteered. | "Who" refers to "those" (plural) |
| I have seen him yesterday. | I saw him yesterday. | No present perfect with a definite past time |
| She is senior than me. | She is senior to me. | Latin comparatives take "to" |
| He did not come, isn't it? | …did he? | Question tag follows the auxiliary and is positive after a negative |
| Despite of the rain… | Despite the rain… / In spite of… | "Despite" takes no "of" |
| The furnitures were new. | The furniture was new. | Uncountable nouns have no plural |
| Return back, repeat again | return, repeat | Redundancy |
| Hardly he had reached when… | Hardly had he reached when… | Inversion after negative adverbs |
| Unless you do not work, you will fail. | Unless you work… | "Unless" is already negative |
| The two brothers love one another. | …each other. | Each other for two, one another for more than two |
| He is more cleverer than his brother. | He is cleverer… | Double comparative |
| Neither of the two answers are correct. | …is correct. | "Neither" is singular |
7. Active–Passive Voice and Direct–Indirect Speech
- Passive: object becomes subject; verb becomes be + V3. "The jawans built the bridge" → "The bridge was built by the jawans."
- Imperative: "Open the gate" → "Let the gate be opened."
- Reported speech with a past reporting verb shifts tenses back: "He said, 'I am tired'" → He said that he was tired. Universal truths do not change: The teacher said that the earth revolves round the sun.
- Time words change: now → then, today → that day, tomorrow → the next day, yesterday → the previous day, here → there, this → that.
8. Vocabulary — Synonyms, Antonyms and Confusing Words
| Word | Meaning | Synonym | Antonym |
|---|---|---|---|
| Abate | to lessen | subside | intensify |
| Candid | frank, honest | forthright | evasive |
| Diligent | hard-working | industrious | lazy |
| Valiant | very brave | gallant | cowardly |
| Obstinate | stubborn | adamant | flexible |
| Frugal | economical | thrifty | extravagant |
| Lucid | clear | intelligible | obscure |
| Vigilant | watchful | alert | careless |
| Ephemeral | short-lived | transient | permanent |
| Benevolent | kind | charitable | malevolent |
| Meticulous | very careful | scrupulous | sloppy |
| Audacious | bold, daring | fearless | timid |
Confusing pairs: affect (verb) / effect (noun); principal (main) / principle (rule); stationary (still) / stationery (paper items); complement (complete) / compliment (praise); eminent (distinguished) / imminent (about to happen); council (body) / counsel (advice); elicit (draw out) / illicit (illegal).
9. Idioms, Phrases and One-Word Substitution
| Idiom / phrase | Meaning |
|---|---|
| To bite the bullet | to face a difficult situation bravely |
| To hold one's ground | to refuse to retreat or give way |
| To burn the midnight oil | to work or study late at night |
| A blessing in disguise | something good that seemed bad at first |
| To turn a deaf ear | to refuse to listen |
| To be at sea | to be confused |
| To call it a day | to stop working |
| To leave no stone unturned | to try every possible way |
| A hot potato | a controversial issue |
| To bury the hatchet | to make peace |
| Description | One word |
|---|---|
| A person who loves his country | Patriot |
| Killing of one's own king | Regicide |
| A place where soldiers live | Barracks / cantonment |
| A government by the military | Stratocracy |
| One who deserts his party or cause | Renegade / turncoat |
| That which cannot be defeated | Invincible |
| A speech made without preparation | Extempore |
| That which cannot be read | Illegible |
| A list of items to be discussed at a meeting | Agenda |
| One who is present everywhere | Omnipresent |
10. Reading Comprehension, Cloze Test and Para-jumbles
- Main idea / title questions: choose the option that covers the whole passage, not one paragraph.
- Inference questions: the answer is implied, not stated, but must not go beyond the passage. Options with "always", "never", "only" are usually wrong.
- Tone: critical, appreciative, objective, sarcastic, optimistic — decide from adjectives the author uses.
- Cloze test: read the full passage first; decide each blank by grammar (part of speech, tense, preposition) and then by meaning.
- Para-jumbles: find the opening sentence (introduces the topic, has no pronoun referring back), then link pairs using pronouns, connectors (however, therefore, moreover) and time sequence.
11. Building Vocabulary with Roots, Prefixes and Suffixes
CDS and AFCAT vocabulary questions often use words that a candidate has never seen before. You cannot memorise every word, but about half of difficult English vocabulary is built from a small number of Latin and Greek roots. If you know the root, you can usually guess the meaning closely enough to choose the right option or to eliminate wrong ones.
| Root | Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| bell | war | belligerent, rebel, bellicose |
| bene / mal | good / bad | benevolent, benefactor / malevolent, malice |
| chron | time | chronic, chronology, synchronise |
| cred | believe | credible, credulous, incredible |
| dict | say | dictate, contradict, verdict, edict |
| fid | faith | fidelity, confide, perfidious |
| loqu / locu | speak | eloquent, loquacious, soliloquy |
| mort | death | mortal, mortuary, immortal |
| omni | all | omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent |
| path | feeling | sympathy, apathy, empathy |
| phil / phobia | love / fear | philanthropy, bibliophile / hydrophobia, acrophobia |
| port | carry | portable, transport, import |
| scrib / script | write | inscribe, manuscript, conscription |
| spec / spect | look | inspect, spectator, circumspect |
| vid / vis | see | evident, visible, supervise |
| voc / vok | call | vocal, invoke, provoke, revoke |
- Negative: un-, in-, im-, il-, ir-, dis-, non- — unable, inaudible, impossible, illegal, irregular, disloyal, non-combatant.
- Against: anti-, contra-, counter- — antidote, contradict, counter-attack.
- Before / after: pre-, ante- / post- — precaution, antecedent, postpone.
- Under / over: sub-, hypo- / super-, hyper- — submarine, hypothermia / supersonic, hypertension.
- Number: uni-, mono- (one); bi-, di- (two); tri- (three); multi-, poly- (many).
-tion, -ment, -ness and -ity form nouns (decision, deployment, readiness, ability); -ous, -ful, -ive and -able form adjectives (courageous, fearful, decisive, reliable); -ise or -ize and -en form verbs (mobilise, strengthen); -ly forms adverbs (bravely). Recognising the suffix helps in fill-in-the-blank questions, where the blank often needs one specific part of speech.
- Split the word: circum-spect = around + look, so circumspect means looking around carefully, that is, cautious.
- Decide whether the word is positive or negative; this alone often removes two options.
- Check the guess against the sentence if one is given.
Reconnaissance — a survey of enemy territory to gather information. Sortie — one flight by one aircraft on a mission. Garrison — troops stationed in a town or fort. Flank — the side of an army or position. Ambush — a surprise attack from a hidden position. Logistics — the organisation of supplies and movement. Valour — great courage in danger. Esprit de corps — the shared pride and loyalty of a group. Camaraderie — trust and friendship among comrades. Insurgency — an armed rebellion against an established authority. Knowing these words makes comprehension passages on military themes much faster to read.
Not every look-alike shares a root. Inflammable means easily set on fire (it is not the opposite of flammable). Infamous means well known for something bad. Enormity means great wickedness, not merely great size, in careful usage.
12. Master Rule Table (the "formulas" of English)
| Area | Rule | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Agreement | Verb agrees with the real subject, not the nearest noun | The box of rifles is heavy. |
| Either/neither…or/nor | Verb agrees with the nearer subject | Neither he nor I am wrong. |
| Each/every | Singular verb and pronoun | Every soldier knows his duty. |
| Present perfect | No definite past time | I met him yesterday. |
| Since/for | Since + point; for + period | since 2015; for ten years |
| Conditionals | No "will" in the if-clause | If it rains, we will stop. |
| Hardly…when, No sooner…than | Inversion with "had" | No sooner had he left than… |
| Articles | A/an by sound | an hour, a European |
| Latin comparatives | superior/inferior/senior/junior/prior + to | senior to me |
| Unless / until | Already negative; no "not" | Unless you hurry… |
| Each other / one another | Two / more than two | The four friends helped one another. |
| Question tag | Positive statement → negative tag, and vice versa | You are ready, aren't you? |
| Reported speech | Past reporting verb shifts tense back | said that he was… |
| Passive | be + V3; subject–object swap | was built by |
| Redundancy | Avoid "return back", "cousin brother" | return; cousin |
13. Master Summary Table
| Question type | NDA | CDS | AFCAT | Key skill |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Spotting errors | 10–12 | 20–30 | 3–5 | Grammar rules |
| Sentence improvement | 5–8 | 15–20 | 2–3 | Tense, idiom usage |
| Synonyms / antonyms | 8–10 | 10–20 | 4–6 | Vocabulary with usage |
| Ordering (words, sentences) | 5–8 | 15–20 | — | Logical connectors |
| Fill in the blanks / cloze | 5–8 | 10–20 | 3–5 | Prepositions, collocations |
| Idioms, one-word substitution | — | 5–10 | 3–4 | Memorised lists |
| Comprehension | 5–10 | 20–25 | 3–5 | Reading speed, inference |
14. Mind Map
- Agreement
- Tenses, conditionals
- Articles, prepositions
- Voice, narration
- Synonyms, antonyms
- Confusing words
- Idioms
- One-word substitution
- Error spotting
- Improvement
- Fill in the blanks
- Comprehension
- Cloze test
- Para-jumbles
15. Tips and Tricks
- In error spotting, check in this order: subject–verb agreement → tense → pronoun → preposition → article → word choice.
- For synonyms, form a sentence with the given word; replace it with each option and keep the one that preserves meaning.
- For antonyms, beware of options that are synonyms placed as traps.
- In para-jumbles, try to fix the first and last sentence, then check only the options that match.
- Keep a "vocabulary diary" of words from newspapers; revise it every Sunday.
- Do not spend more than 60 seconds on a single vocabulary question — mark it and move on.
- "The quality of the rifles are good" — the subject is "quality" (singular), so "is" is correct.
- "He prefers tea than coffee" — prefer takes "to": prefers tea to coffee.
- "I look forward to meet you" — "to" here is a preposition: looking forward to meeting you.
- "Discuss about" and "order for" are wrong — discuss the plan; order the goods.
16. Important One-Liners
- "Each", "every", "either", "neither" are singular.
- "A number of" takes a plural verb; "the number of" takes a singular verb.
- Use "fewer" with countable nouns and "less" with uncountable nouns.
- Use "between" for two and "among" for more than two.
- "Since" marks a point of time; "for" marks a duration.
- "Hardly" is followed by "when", "no sooner" by "than".
- Superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior and prefer take "to".
- Words such as information, advice, furniture, equipment and luggage have no plural form.
- "Scarcely any" is correct; "scarcely no" is a double negative.
- "Lest" is followed by "should": Work hard lest you should fail.
- "Would rather" is followed by the base verb: I would rather walk.
- Universal truths stay in the present tense in reported speech.
- Passive of "They say that…" is "It is said that…".
- Options with absolute words (always, never, only) are rarely correct in inference questions.
17. PYQ-Based Questions with Detailed Answers
Identify the part with an error: "The captain, along with his men, (A) / were awarded (B) / for their bravery (C) / No error (D)".
- The captain, along with his men,
- were awarded
- for their bravery
- No error
Answer and explanation
"Along with his men" does not change the subject; the subject is "The captain" (singular), so the verb should be "was awarded". The phrase "their bravery" is acceptable because the bravery belongs to the whole group mentioned.
Answer: (B) were awarded → was awarded
"I have joined (A) / the academy (B) / in July 2023 (C) / No error (D)".
- I have joined
- the academy
- in July 2023
- No error
Answer and explanation
The present perfect cannot be used with a definite past time such as "in July 2023". It should be "I joined the academy in July 2023".
Answer: (A) I have joined → I joined
"No sooner did the siren sound when the soldiers took position." Choose the best replacement for the underlined part.
- then
- than
- that
- No improvement
Answer and explanation
"No sooner" is always paired with "than". "When" pairs with "hardly" or "scarcely". The corrected sentence: "No sooner did the siren sound than the soldiers took position."
Answer: (B) than
The new recruit was accused ______ negligence on duty.
- for
- with
- of
- about
Answer and explanation
The fixed preposition is "accused of". By contrast, we say "charged with". "Accused for" and "accused about" are incorrect.
Answer: (C) of
Choose the word closest in meaning to VALIANT.
- Timid
- Gallant
- Careless
- Valuable
Answer and explanation
Valiant means showing courage or determination; "gallant" has the same meaning. "Timid" is the opposite, and "valuable" is a look-alike trap with a different meaning.
Answer: (B) Gallant
Choose the word opposite in meaning to EPHEMERAL.
- Transient
- Brief
- Permanent
- Fragile
Answer and explanation
Ephemeral means lasting a very short time. "Permanent" is its opposite. "Transient" and "brief" are synonyms placed as traps.
Answer: (C) Permanent
Choose the meaning of the idiom "to hold one's ground".
- To own land
- To refuse to give way under pressure
- To lie down
- To dig a trench
Answer and explanation
"To hold one's ground" means to maintain one's position or opinion and not retreat. The literal options (owning land, digging) misread the idiom.
Answer: (B) To refuse to give way under pressure
A speech delivered without any preparation is called:
- Extempore
- Eulogy
- Soliloquy
- Monologue
Answer and explanation
"Extempore" means spoken without preparation. A eulogy praises someone (often the dead), a soliloquy is speaking one's thoughts aloud alone (as in a play), and a monologue is a long speech by one person.
Answer: (A) Extempore
Change to passive voice: "The engineers repaired the runway overnight."
- The runway is repaired by the engineers overnight.
- The runway was repaired by the engineers overnight.
- The runway had been repaired overnight by engineers.
- The engineers were repaired by the runway.
Answer and explanation
Simple past active (repaired) becomes "was + V3" in the passive: "The runway was repaired by the engineers overnight." Option (A) changes the tense to present; (C) changes it to past perfect.
Answer: (B)
Change to indirect speech: He said, "I will leave for the base tomorrow."
- He said that he will leave for the base tomorrow.
- He said that he would leave for the base the next day.
- He said that I would leave for the base tomorrow.
- He told that he will leave the next day.
Answer and explanation
With a past reporting verb, "will" becomes "would", "I" becomes "he" and "tomorrow" becomes "the next day". Option (D) also misuses "told" without an object.
Answer: (B)
Choose the correct option: "He is ______ honest officer and ______ European scholar praised him."
- an, an
- a, a
- an, a
- a, an
Answer and explanation
"Honest" begins with a vowel sound (the h is silent), so "an honest". "European" begins with a "yu" consonant sound, so "a European". Articles depend on sound, not spelling.
Answer: (C) an, a
Read: "Discipline in the armed forces is not merely obedience to orders. It is the habit of doing the right thing even when no one is watching, because the safety of many depends on the reliability of each." What is the central idea?
- Soldiers must obey every order without thinking.
- Discipline means self-driven reliability that protects the group.
- Discipline is needed only during war.
- Officers should watch soldiers at all times.
Answer and explanation
The passage contrasts mere obedience with the habit of doing right without supervision, linking it to everyone's safety. Option (A) is the view the passage rejects; (C) and (D) are not stated.
Answer: (B)
Arrange to form a coherent paragraph: P. However, the drills taught them to stay calm. Q. The cadets were caught in a sudden storm during the trek. R. They navigated safely back to camp by nightfall. S. At first, panic spread among the younger ones.
- QSPR
- QPSR
- SQPR
- QRSP
Answer and explanation
Q introduces the situation. S describes the first reaction ("At first, panic…"). P contrasts it with "However, the drills…". R gives the outcome. So the order is QSPR. "However" in P must follow a negative statement, which only S provides.
Answer: (A) QSPR
Using the root loqu (speak), the word LOQUACIOUS most nearly means:
- very talkative
- very quiet
- easily angered
- extremely wise
Answer and explanation
Loqu means to speak, and the suffix -acious means inclined to. A loquacious person talks a great deal. The root also appears in eloquent and soliloquy.
Answer: (A) very talkative
Choose the word that means the opposite of BELLIGERENT.
- Conciliatory
- Hostile
- Aggressive
- Combative
Answer and explanation
Bell- means war, so belligerent means eager to fight. Conciliatory means willing to make peace, which is its opposite. Hostile, aggressive and combative are synonyms.
Answer: (A) Conciliatory
The word INFLAMMABLE means:
- easily set on fire
- not able to burn
- easily cooled
- resistant to heat
Answer and explanation
Inflammable and flammable mean the same thing: easily set on fire. The prefix in- here intensifies the meaning rather than negating it, which is why safety signs now prefer flammable. The opposite is non-flammable.
Answer: (A) easily set on fire
18. Quick Revision Summary
- Agreement: find the real subject; either/neither/each are singular; nearer-subject rule for either…or.
- Tenses: no present perfect with past time; since/for; conditional types; hardly–when, no sooner–than.
- Articles by sound; "the" for unique, superlatives, rivers and ranges.
- Fixed prepositions: superior to, accused of, charged with, comply with, abstain from.
- Voice and narration: be + V3; tense shift back; time-word changes.
- Vocabulary: learn words with synonyms, antonyms and a sentence.
- Comprehension: questions first, skim, scan, eliminate extremes.
- Para-jumbles: opening sentence + connectors + pronoun links.